Danish Rock Culture from the 50's to the 80's

1. Subject matter, main topics, theoretical and empirical background of the project
Rock music has, since the mid-fifties, held an important position within Danish culture - initially in opposition to the established high culture and later as an integrated part of a cultural landscape in which the markers of high and popular culture were less pronounced. This development has been the result of an ongoing negotiation within a range of cultural contexts, first and foremost between (especially Anglo-American) international mass-mediated cultures of rock and/or youth, and locally and nationally grounded cultures of popular culture and social traditions. Danish rock culture, the subject matter of this project, is here seen as the amalgamation of these processes of negotiation, in which music has played a significant role for both coherence and identity.

At an overall level, the project aims at examining (in relation to a range of different spheres) how social and cultural interactions have constructed local and national rock cultures in relation to increasingly intensified globalisation processes. Focus will be on the dynamics of the meetings within a number of cultural patterns as well as between various local actors (musicians, audiences, people within the organisations of the music industries, cultural 'opponents' to rock music etc.). As far as the international influence is concerned, a development is discernable from imitation of to inspiration from foreign artists and styles, that is, a movement from dependence to partial independence in which there is room for local experiences, e.g. use of the Danish language and musical traditions. Simultaneously, however, the influence from older Danish popular culture has been declining, a process that started to accelerate when rock music began to demarcate itself from its 'other', namely 'pop'.

Ethnomusicology and Bourdieu-inspired cultural theory set the theoretical frame of the project as well as constituting the specific starting points of some of the participating projects. Against a background of an ethnomusicology informed by postcolonial theory, the project aims, through anthropological fieldwork, to focus on and interpret statements and life stories from individual actors (Keil & Feld 1994, Barz & Cooley 1997, Radano & Bohlman 2000) and thereby to understand and explain the continuous and complex changes taking place within the cultural field. In this work, the following concepts will be points of departure: 'identity' (Stokes 1994; among other things in relation the weakening of cultural constraints in late modernity and in relation to notions of 'Danishness'),'the other' (Born & Hesmondhalgh 2000; e.g. in relation to the construction of 'otherness' of older generations and foreign 'models'), and notions related to the 'local/global' dichotomy (Slobin 1993; in relation to the interactions taking place). In addition, a sociological perspective on everyday practices will inform the analysis of concrete, affective and meaning-producing aspects related to the various reproduction technologies (cf. Urry 2001, DeNora 2000).

Larger issues related to the field of musicology will also be addressed within this project. The attempt to write the history of Danish rock from the perspective of ethnomusicology may inform both larger debates concerning the writing of music history (cf. Blum et al. 1991, Cook & Everist 1999), as well as questions related to musical analysis (among other things in relation to the attempt to understand rock music as aural history, Cohen 1993 and Lilliestam 1995). While music technology and everyday sociology are drawn upon in order to understand the complexity of practices at a micro level, a Bourdieu-based framework is utilised in order to understand the formation and development of the rock culture and its relations to other fields. Given Bourdieu´s relations to anthropology, the two bodies of theories outlined can be seen as related.

Danish rock culture will be analysed as a dynamic field (cf. Bourdieu 1984, 1993, 1996 and Bourdieu-based studies of popular culture, e.g. Laermanns 1992, Bjurström 1997, Bolin 1998, Lindberg et al. 2000). The field is starting to form in the middle of the fifties and finds its contours by the end of the sixties when various agents have positioned themselves in relation to each other and a certain agreement has been reached with regard to underlying values. The field is stabilised up through the seventies and is able to contain the heterodoxies of both punk and the New Wave. Yet the field continues to have rather unstable boundaries, partly because of the close associations with international musical and youth-related fields, and partly because of the relations to the larger field of Danish national culture, within which it as a sub-field is slowly rising.

There are a number of reasons for delimiting the project chronologically in the eighties: it is here that the field has become clearly demarcated, and, secondly, because the time after brings forth a number of rather different issues. The field consequently looses some of its cohesiveness due to the emergence of a number of different music and life styles, of which only some can be seen as rock and rock cultures. In addition, a number of important post-eighty developments influence the field: the general acceptance of rock among the generations as well as the partial incorporation of it into the field of high culture, the emergence of music videos, an increased reflexivity, the oft-used mechanisms of distancing (e.g. pastiche), digitalisation and lately the advent of MP3-files and the challenge to the status of the CD. The relative meagre amount of written material about Danish rock culture and the almost total absence of academic literature is in itself a good reason for carrying out this project. Furthermore, the actors of this period are starting to get old, and a few have died already; the gathering of material through interviews is therefore a central part of this project.

Internationally, academic work on national rock cultures and history has not featured prominently. This project may thus constitute a valuable impetus to international popular music studies. Nationally, the project will form the basis of an inter-disciplinary research environment for the study of popular music. Secondly, the results of this research will almost immediately be passed on into teaching. Thirdly, this project will benefit from the synergy emerging from being associated with a number of related projects (see below) with the goal of, among other things boosting the public interest for Danish rock music, culture and history. Finally, Danish public radio (DR) is collecting, registering and digitalising different musical artefacts (demos, master tapes, takes from concerts etc.) and diverse memorabilia from groups, soloists and live venues. A number of the project participants are also part of the group coordinating this activity, and the entire group will have unlimited access to this unique material, which will be an invaluable asset for the individual projects.

2. Individual projects
The project consists of six individual projects as well as two Ph.D.-projects. The individual projects are as follows:

2.1. Historiography and larger mediation of Danish rock culture
Within the last 20-25 years the conditions for the writing of history has been the object of an intense discussion (cf. Iggers 1997, Treitler 1999 and what is often called 'New Musicology'). Popular music studies have been part of a larger questioning of existing canons and constructions of history but have not offered any alternative models since Chambers (1985) and partly Grossberg (1992). In the meantime the larger mediation of the history of rock has exploded both in the form of books in the journalistic genre, textbooks for the ages 15-18, TV-series and museums in the US, England and Holland.

This project aims at examining the few attempts at writing histories of Danish rock culture from the late sixties onwards, and compare these with British and American representations in books and on TV. Futhermore the mediations of the histories in museums will be studied. The ensuing analyses will be based on a Bourdieu-inspired cultural theory and simultaneously related to the musicological discussion of the writing of history with special reference to the critique raised from within ethnomusicology (e.g. Bohlmann 1999). The project aims at drawing up distinctions and values in relation to central cultural markers such as the high/low dichotomy, canon formations, discourses on authenticity, centre/periphery constructions, gender and nationality. In addition, it will be examined how references to musical material are formulated in written material and made part of audio-visual presentations. The overall intention is to create a foundation for the writing of histories of Danish rock in different contexts and for a Danish 'experimentarium' of rock.

2.2 International relations and the notion of 'Danishness' in Danish rock culture
Danish rock music has always had close relations to Anglo-American music. Taking the ethnomusicological concept of 'otherness' as its vantage point, this project sets out to examine the interaction and negotiation of the concept of 'Danishness' in relation to musical imitation. A working hypothesis is that rock music somehow constitutes a flight from Danishness. Initially, the prominent musical elements were those most foreign to the Danish music of the time, and with the choice of the international music the counter-culture of the 60s turned the established notions of 'us' and 'them' upside down in the sense that the culture of the parent generation became 'the other'. Such processes challenge the notion of homology between a society and its music, which consequently must be made the object of a more complex discourse model (e.g. Lindberg et al. 2000). Imitation should not merely be seen as copying but as a prerequisite for a creative process of change in which the musicians and their audiences through imitation position themselves in relation to a more global perspective (Kirkegaard 1996).

Empirically the project focuses on The Savage Rose in the period from the start of the group in 1967 to approximately 1980. Despite the American psychedelic music and the English language, the group is often perceived as very Danish and therefore constitutes a complex focal point for an examination of the above-mentioned themes of 'Danishness' and imitation. Theoretically and methodologically, this project rests upon ethnomusicology and fieldwork, interviews and musical analyses.

2.3. Processes of learning within and the establishment of the field of Danish rock culture
How is the inner development of the rock culture linked to its trajectory from a marginal to a central position within Danish culture as well as to changes in the competences and cultural capital of youth? These questions will be addressed from the perspective of a cultural theory based primarily on Bourdieu. Focus will be on pivotal periods in the development of rock from its introduction in the 1950s to the variously-staged tensions between rock and pop in the 1970s. Methodologically, the project will be based on case studies of eight individual songs. In relation to each of these, analyses will evolve from interviews conducted with relevant actors, various existing written material and other sources of social history from the contexts of these songs. Focus will be on positions, patterns of social practices and competences as well as on forms of cultural capital; taken together, the eight analyses will be seen as elements in the formation of a Danish rock field.

An additional goal of this project is to develop further a Bourdieu-based approach by attempting to go beyond the reductionism of Bourdieu´s notion of practice as well as by making the notions of cultural capital and competences more dynamic concepts than in the majority of analyses in which they have been employed. The project is thus intended as a contribution to both Danish cultural history and international theory development.

2.4. Fans and Danish rock culture
The most marked or 'extreme' users of popular music are fans, and studies of fan cultures may thus allow us glimpses of the significance of music and music culture for the individual. This project aims at examining fan cultures in Denmark from a historical perspective while focusing on the role of music in the formation of identities. The vantage point of this project is - with reference to recent research on youth cultures - that identity in late modernity is formed by young individuals themselves by trying on and playing with signs and symbols from the entire cultural spectrum through a complex process of learning (Drotner, 1995, Fornäs 1995, Ziehe 1983). It is assumed that the meeting with rock music among other things have acted as a 'mediator' between local 'realities' and an increasingly intrusive globalisation.

The empirical material of the project will be obtained from field work among fans and ex-fans from the early days of rock and pop in the 1950s and up to the 1980s with focus on idols such as Otto Brandenburg, Peter Belli, Lollipops, Gasolin, Walkers and Thomas Helmig. The project thus draws on both anthropological methods and larger frames from cultural theory.

2.5. Musical practices in Danish rock culture
A new type of autodidact musician is important in the establishment of Danish rock music. What is characteristic for this type is that they are part of new and expanded forms of musical networks (managers, roadies and sound engineers) as well as related to new forms of musicianship. By the end of the 1950s what Green has called peer-directed learning or group learning is introduced (Green 2001), and the working hypothesis for this project is that the introduction of rock, in addition to a new style, was the introduction of a completely new form of collective practice.

Firstly, rock music becomes the starting point for the appropriation of new musical competences. Inwardly, this happens through a negotiation and formation of collective arrangements and outwardly as the formation of groups, whose individual members have developed their competences in dialogue with and in relation to the rest of the group simultaneously with the development of a common set of values. It is characteristic that new styles continuously are developed within such emerging peer-like groups. This musical practice somewhat challenges the established notion of 'a musician'. A specific theme of this project will be an examination of the processes through which the Danish Musicians´ Union (DMF) enlisted, and evaluated the competences, of this new type of musician. This will necessitate an examination of the archives of DMF, which are available at The Museum of Musical Instruments. The aim is also to interview a number of musicians from the period about their musical practices and related issues. Theoretically the project is based on Cohens (1991), Berkaaks (1989, 1999), Ruuds (1992), Finnegans (1989) as well as Greens´ anthropologically-based and pioneering work on musical practices.

2.6. Materiality and distribution in Danish rock culture
The main objective of this project is to approach rock music and culture from a media perspective with focus on the processes, actors and artefacts through which rock has been distributed. The various artefactual forms through which music moves and is appropriated are here not seen as 'neutral' casings of already produced music, but rather as technologies, which, through a dialectical interaction with a range of related processes and factors, have been an integrated part of the ways the music, its consumption and meanings have developed (Théberge 1997). Processes of consumption, and their related reproduction and distribution technologies and systems, will constitute points of departure for this project. Such an approach rests on the assumptions that the media and music development primarily have been driven by issues related to consumption and that the more general social and cultural implications of rock cannot be understood without relating these to the more concrete and affective aspects of the materiality and technology of the music - among other things in relation to notions of 'soundscapes' (DeNora 2000). This entails, since most rock music and related technologies have emerged out of international developments, that Danish rock locations and related formations of identity are inscribed within a set of trans-national meaning- and communication processes/relations (e.g. Straw 1991). The reconstructed everyday practices (among other things through interviews) will thus - in relation to concepts such as place, space and flows - be related to both social and cultural processes of globalisation (Appadurai 1997, Urry 2000).

2.7. Coherence of the individual projects
The project can be seen as the meeting between researchers from the fields of musicology and social science. The common object of study and theoretical frame thus constitute connections between the two research traditions. And the dialogue between researchers from the two traditions in relation to the individual projects aims at enriching both traditions. Seen together, the diversity of the individual projects will necessitate continuous processes of theory and concept adaptation and development in relation to the field of rock culture and the different research traditions, e.g. through the incorporation of a range of research traditions (cultural studies, research on youth and different approaches from musicology, sociology, ethnomusicology, and media studies).

The project is focusing on processes of cultural change within a common field. The first two of the individual projects aim at setting up an overall frame for the project by examining issues related to the historiography of music and anthropological methods, among other things to obtain a methodological synergy in relation to use of interviews in the writing of music history. These considerations will be applicable in all the participating projects but are especially relevant for the four projects looking at the entire period from different theoretical vantage points and with different perspectives. These projects all rely on qualitative research interviews and will thus build up a large amount of common material. These four parallel projects will penetrate deeper into the empirical material than hitherto seen and thus contribute to a fruitful dialogue and thus more nuanced knowledge about the historical development.The project thus consists of a common frame within which theories, research traditions and concrete empirical material meet.

The ethical implications of the utilised methods will constantly be related to ongoing and related methodological discussions within anthropology and sociology.

The projects of the tenured researchers will occupy part of their research time throughout the period, and the aim of the research leave is to allow six months concentrated research. The time-consuming field work makes periods without teaching very important.

3. Organisation and schedule
The central part of the project is made up of the following projects:
1. Historiography and larger mediation of Danish rock culture (Morten Michelsen, associate professor, Ph.D., Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen. Project leader)
2. International relations and the notion of 'Danishness' in Danish rock culture (Annemette Kirkegaard, associate professor, Ph.D., Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen)
3. Processes of learning within and the establishment of the field of Danish rock culture (Gestur Gudmundsson, associate professor, Ph.D., Department of Educational Sociology, The Danish University of Education)
4. Fans and Danish rock culture (Lisbeth Ihlemann, lecturer, Ph.D., Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen)
5. Musical practices in Danish rock culture (Charlotte Rørdam, associate professor, cand.phil., Department of Musicology, University of Aarhus)
6. Materiality and distribution in Danish rock culture (Henrik Bødker, assistant professor, Ph.D. Department of Information and Media Studies, University of Aarhus)

To these projects will be added two three'year, full time Ph.D.-projects Associated projects are:
1. An analysis of rock texts ((Niels Erik Wille, associate professor, cand. mag., Department of Communication, Journalism and Computer Science, Roskilde University Center)
2. Aarhus as a rock city (Torben Christensen, lecturer and associate professor, Aalborg University and Academy of Music, Aalborg)
3. Political rock in the 1970s (Olav Harsløf, associate professor, mag.art., Department of Communication, Journalism and Computer Science, Roskilde University Center)
4. Administrations of Danish folk music traditions in Danish rock, pop and techno app. 1970-2000 - an analytical and aesthetic examination (Henrik Marstal, Ph.D.-student, mag.art., Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen)
5. Genre classifications of popular music as seen in relation to cross-overs between jazz and rock/pop (Fabian Holt, assistant professor, Ph.D., Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen)
6. The notion of genre - as a discursive phenomenon in the field of popular music criticism (Mads Krogh-Christensen, Ph.D.-student, cand.mag., Department of Musicology, University of Aarhus)

Related projects:
The present project grew out of plans for the establishment of a Danish Rock City modelled on international precedents. It has, together with the Municipality of Roskilde, already been agreed to place an 'experimentarium' for Danish rock in Roskilde. The plan is for this institution to have a research department and this project aims at providing the foundation for future activities there. The experimentarium necessitates the already-mentioned collecting of musical artefacts and memorabilia from Danish rock culture, which also is undertaken by the Municipality of Roskilde. There is furthermore contact to Musicon Valley, a corporation between businesses, institutions of education and the local government in Roskilde. Finally, there is also contact to Denmark´s Radio where the old musical artefacts are being digitalised in order for these to be available for research.

4. Presentation of Results
The project will present its findings in written form in two different ways. Firstly, the project web site will present a detailed presentation of the whole project and there will here also be access to a number of working papers from the various parts of the project. In the beginning these papers will mainly be attempts to outline appropriate theoretical approaches; later, papers will present results as they are produced. The main audience for these papers will be those within the general public who are interested in these matters. Secondly, the findings of the project will be published in three anthologies. The first of these will be an internet publication (in pdf-form) and contain reports (not least about the emerging collection of artefacts). The other two anthologies in book form will contain the actual results of the project. The first of these will have the working title 'Anthropological Studies of Danish Rock Culture', and the second will be entitled 'Cultural Analyses of Danish Rock Culture'. In addition the goal is get articles from the project published in international journals. The main target of these publications will be the academy. In addition to the publications already mentioned, there will be two Ph.D.-theses.

The musical material collected sand digitalised will be available from DR´s web site. The information cooperation with DR will in addition make it possible for journalists to use researchers/results in their broadcasts. An international conference is scheduled and will focus on local and national rock cultures in a globalised world. After the project has been completed it would, as already mentioned, be natural to produce a research-based but more easily comprehensible presentation of the history of Danish rock. As yet, this has, however, not been decided.

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